Organizational Politics And Political Behavior Essay

This weeks’ topic is quite interesting. I have seen and experienced organizational politics but I wasn’t aware there was an official term for this phenomenon. My experiences with organizational politics have been primarily negative but I understand that is only my perspective of it. According to Management-issues.com website, there are several positives to office politics (2004). For example, organizational politics can be used to â€Å"unlock barriers to change, create greater buy-in on key projects, produce more organizational cohesion and speed up decision-making† (Management-issues.com, 2004). Ideally, these are goals organizations aim to obtain daily. However, according to the site, the key factor to achieving these goals is the constructive use of organizational politics. When there are no common grounds or shared goals or if the actions or attitudes of senior management are negative, organizational politics tends to be more destructive. Our test offers several organizational factors that contribute to political behavior (DuBrin, 2013, p. 218). Of the factors mentioned, I am most familiar with the â€Å"subjective standards of performance† factor (DuBrin, 2013, p.218). Ironically, this emerged from a change in how my current employer decided to measure employee performance. About ten years ago, my company acquired several smaller companies within the same industry to expand its footprint domestically. The performance measurement tools used for within the various acquiredShow MoreRelatedOrganizational Politics1574 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Organizational politics refers to behaviors â€Å"that occur on an informal basis within an organization and involve intentional acts of influence that are designed to protect or enhance individuals’ professional careers when conflicting courses of action are possible† (Drory, 1993; Porter, Allen, amp; Angle, 1981). Organizational politics is an elusive type of power relations in the workplace. It represents a unique domain of interpersonal relations, characterized by the direct or indirectRead MoreEssay on Organizational behavior809 Words   |  4 Pages To help us understand organizations, we might consider them as political systems. The political metaphor helps us understand power relationships in day-to-day organizational relationships. If we accept that power relations exist in organizations, then politics and politicking are an essential part of organizational life. Politics is a means of recognizing and, ultimately, reconciling competing interests within the organization. Competing interests can be reconciled by any number of means. For exampleRead MoreOrganizational Power and Politics1511 Words   |  7 PagesOrganizational Power and Politics Some employees believe that politics and power in the workplace is a game that corporate and management plays. However, games usually have rules to follow, a referee or judge, and an ending with a winner. Although politics has a winner, this game never ends, the rules are always subject to change, and there is no referee or spokesperson. Corporate traditions establish much of the biased game of politics that is played on the organizational level. Unfortunately, politicsRead MoreRelationship Between Managers And Managers1733 Words   |  7 Pagescapable of contributing to the success of an organization as well the allocation of power and politics. Upward relations. Organizational citizenship adds value to the success of upward relations. Organizational citizenship is at its essence, the belief that when you care for something and nurture it, the thing will thrive and be better able to support your own success (DuBrin, 2009, p.88). Organizational citizenship makes for a better organization that all stakeholders benefit from. The use of impressionRead MoreAn Organization Called Numi Organic Tea Essay1499 Words   |  6 Pagesthough the Numi Organic outsourcing, they still want people who are working for them to see the Numi’s values. This case study discussing about Numi Organic’s political behavior in this extended organization and the role and nature of ethical considerations in this behavior. Nature of the Organizational Politics Organizational politics can be considered as the activities that people inside the organization, perform to acquire, enhance, and use power and other resources to obtain their preferredRead MorePower and Politics906 Words   |  4 PagesHeader: Power and Politics Power and Politics Paper Wanda F. Carter Power and Politics A collective group of people with general goals is how organizations are first established and built. In order the goals to be achieved people will need to work together and behave in a way that is governed by rules, regulations, policies and other methods that have been established by the organization. This is normally accomplished through the process of influencing behaviors. Power is a taskRead More Power and Politics in Organizations Essay948 Words   |  4 PagesPower and Politics in Organizations Introduction Have you ever wondered what role politics and power play in organizations? When used effectively they can be compatible in reaching the organizations goals. Power is defined as the ability to get someone to do something you want done or the ability to make things happen in the way you want them. (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn, Chap. 15). Power is important within organizations because it is the way in which management influences individualsRead MoreEssay on Power and Politics977 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Have you ever wondered what role politics and power play in organizations? When used effectively they can be compatible in reaching the organizations goals. Power is defined as the ability to get someone to do something you want done or the ability to make things happen in the way you want them. (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn, Chap. 15). Power is important within organizations because it is the way in which management influences individuals to make things happen. When powerRead MoreThe Purpose Of This Essay Is To Identify And Explain Key1314 Words   |  6 Pageshave learned in this course and provide a power and politics action plan that you can use immediately in your business. Furthermore, it is the intention to highlight leadership style, organization stability, culture, and diversity of the workforce as well as identify the need for communication within an organization. The individual factors contributing to the political behavior in organizations include; the political nature of human behavior, the need for power, Machiavellianism, the self-monitoringRead MoreLeadership : Leadership Behavior And Politics1370 Words   |  6 PagesLeadership Behaviors Politics Winning organizations today, attribute much of their success to having great people, great processes, and great leaders who inspire and motivate employees to follow them. Great leaders understand that they have influence and power over individuals, and what they do with this power defines them for years to come. We can all think of leaders of whom we respect and model our current behaviors after, and transversely, we can all think of leaders whose behaviors we are

Why The State Auditor s Office Is Responsible For...

The State Auditor s Office is responsible for evaluating the administration and management of public funds and programs to assure that the proper checks and balances. The State Auditor is the only entity that has by law, full access to all records, accounts, correspondence, and the internal files of state and local agencies. General Powers of the State Auditor include the power to subpoena records and take depositions (State Auditor s Oversight,n.d.). In this scenario, the results of a state audit with the addition to an internal investigation revealed that the agency in question is providing excellent service to middle class clients and doing a sub-par job with connecting less fortunate patients with needed ancillary services.†¦show more content†¦Typical Client Obstacles Some of the typical obstacles that interfere with to a client’s ability to access service across local agencies are lack of child care, physical disabilities, mental health problems, limited transportation and low literacy. Child Care Low-income families normally include children, partly because of younger family heads. Statically lower-income families include more children on average than higher-income families. Therefore, lower-income families commonly face costly child care (Kimmel, 2001). Physical Disability / Mental Health Problems Mental health and physical health are connected. Mental health effects a person’s ability to maintain proper physical health. Many mental illnesses, such as depression and anxiety will affect people’s ability to full participate in health-promoting behaviors. On the other hand, problems with physical health, such as chronic diseases, can impact mental health and decrease a person’s ability to participate in treatment and recover (Lando, Marshall Williams, Sturgis, Williams, 2006) Limited Transportation Most low-income households are lack the fund to keep up with the increase of transportation costs. They must come up with various ways to get from point A to point B. Low-income families must decide between driving, get a ride, taking mass transit, biking, or even walking. These

Ngos Free Essays

————————————————- NGOs or better known as non-governmental organisations are non-profitable organisations that pursue social aims that involve political aspects but are not political parties. As it sounds, NGOs maintain its non-governmental status by excluding participation from government representatives as members in the organisations. NGOs can be funded completely or partially by the government. We will write a custom essay sample on Ngos or any similar topic only for you Order Now NGO is usually run by a specially elected chairperson who is responsible to the operation of the organisation completely. ————————————————- NGOs can be divided into the ‘insider’ or  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœoutsider’ groups. ‘Insider’ groups have the advantage in policy-making as they maintain a close relationship with policy-makers. Such groups are trying to secure their aims and objectives by building up their network from inside and thus, the name of ‘Insider’ group. On the other hand, ‘outsider’ groups are more dependent on the public with the help of media in promoting their aims. ————————————————- It is said that NGOs are a better channel for society to voice out their concerns rather than political parties. This, we agree. As NGO members are not representing the government and mainly comprise by members who are local citizens on their own, NGOs are believed to give a fairer judgement on issues. This is because, in order to understand a situation, one must be in that situation so that effective solutions can be made and implemented and in this context, it is the local citizens who are voicing for themselves as they know exactly what are the problems the society is facing. ————————————————- NGOs are flexible in becoming accustomed to local conditions and responding to the local needs. For that reason, they can experiment freely with new approaches and take risks if necessary. They can develop integrated projects to help the local people. Their main aim is to help and serve the people and not to rule the country. ————————————————- With their doors open and ability to reach out to the citizens, people find it much more comfortable to speak out their hearts to NGOs without the fear of being imprisoned or facing penalty. This allows truth to be revealed where only then, further actions will be taken. Hence, NGOs become a place where people go to much frequently than parliaments. ————————————————- Another major advantage of NGOs being a reliable channel for commoners is that they have the capability of communicating at all levels. This means that they can easily interact with the local people and relay their messages to the top levels of the government. ————————————————- We, for one, must acknowledge the efforts NGOs had been doing for the past few years. NGOs have advocated and raised issues, concerns and needs for a specific user group. They raised point of view or general public interest that is not yet covered by legislation or other policy documents, instruments and measures. Furthermore, NGOs share their findings with the public after reaching out to citizens. In addition, NGOs also have experts with the knowledge on specific topics, playing a key role in setting the political agenda. Their analysis and researches identify current and future needs in society and provide crucial perspectives. ———————————————— We understand that there are eight different orientations in NGOs as in accord to Puhle (2001) such as professional associations, business, commerce and industry groups, trade unions, agricultural associations, single-issue interest groups, ideological groups, public interest groups and welfare associations. This i s a very systematic organisation where different issues can be channeled separately. For one, we often doubt whether donations that have been made go directly to the person or a community in need. Thus, charitable orientation NGOs such as UNICEF can be an organisation where citizens can see the results of their donations in curbing poverty and nurturing education for our future generation. Is this not a better option than donation without knowing where our money went? ————————————————- Besides, whenever a citizen has doubts on the leadership of a minister, government tends to cover up for the minister. In many cases, transparency is not practiced. Therefore, we believe that if these issues are channeled to the NGOs, they can be taken to a higher level and not just hid behind the lens of media. ———————————————— Many may have the idea that NGOs staffs are part-time volunteers but that is not the fact. Many NGOs are actually relying on highly professional paid staffs. This ensures NGOs are operating smoothly and of a high reliability. They are also capable of recruiting highly motivated staffs and experts with lesser restrictions than employees working for the government. Hence, this is another reason on why NGOs are a better channel for the society to voice out their concerns. ———————————————— NGOs collaborate with one another throughout the world so that together, they create a much sustainable and peaceful world. This enables global alliance which leads us back to a worthy reason on why NGO is a better channel for commoners to voice out their opinions on issues. When certain issues are brought up to the international level, these issues will be taken a higher priority and attract public attention. In a way, this helps in paving better solutions. —————————— ——————- United Nation, a global and massive organisation known to held conferences on various issues and matters throughout the year has big impact on many issues. Well-known to be handling issues revolving citizens, United Nation aids NGOs in providing alternative solutions in solving issues. For example, labour law implemented in the third world countries was found to be unfair among the labourers and United Nation along with other relevant NGOs, raised this question which attracted attention all over the world. Back then, labourers were so glad and grateful for the contribution made by the United Nation. ———————————————— NGOs are very important since they offer local communication, action and also distributing resources when there are no existing local organisations. In fact, an NGO provides a mechanism that could possibly work where the government has failed. As a result, it su pports grass roots initiatives as well as recognising and responding to the realities of the local people. ————————————————- Since NGOs are actual non-profit organizations, various projects can be achieved without having to use the government’s money. This is because there are many private donors who support the NGOs and this means that there will never be a lack of resources. Additionally, NGOs provide a good alternative to creating mass access structures which are supposingly extremely cumbersome, unreliable and costly. ————————————————- In conclusion, NGOs provide a suitable channel for commoners to voice out their concerns where all issues are handled maturely and efficiently with no bond to political rules. Thus, this ensures all issues are handled fairly regardless of race, religion and political aspects. How to cite Ngos, Papers

Violence And Nonviolence Essay Example For Students

Violence And Nonviolence Essay Violence is a problem that we as humans, deal with everyday. Today, it seemsthat we deal with it in just about every aspect of our lives. From childrenscartoons to the nightly news, we are witnesses to its power and harm. A highlydebated argument for the causes of violence are surrounding our homes as well asour government. No matter the causes of violence or for that fact aggressors, wehave a personal responsibility must be taken for violent actions. We are giventhe choice to decide how we each want to live our lives; but before we decide,we must look at the ethical issues that surround our choices. Most humans striveto live a good, pure life. Violence is one of the few instances that destroysthat good life. It is something that we work towards eliminating. It is definedas an act taken against another being with the intent to do harm. We oftenconsider violence in terms of the physical aggressor, yet violence can surfacein a variety of ways even including self-defense. Violence is a result ofconflicting interests or unresolvable differences. In most instances, bothparties to he conflict feel that they are right and that their actions arejustified. However, there are other cases in which their is a clear aggressorand victim. Nevertheless, violence is a very complicated and difficult issue. Byits very nature, violence is an act against life. Life, is sacred. It ischerished, not out of purpose of use, not instrumental, but for the good,intrinsic value of its very being. Violence is instrumental. It is a means to anend. There is no intrinsical goodness in violence. Violent acts are not good forthe sake of violence itself. A single question that arises out of the argumentof violence and nonviolence, Is violence ever justifiable or acceptable. The twomain types of arguments that arise are the self-defense paradigm and pacifism. The self-defense paradigm accepts violence as a means to protect ones life,or the life of others. This argument interprets life as being intrinsically goodand for instrumental purposes, but accepts lethal results as an unintendedconsequence of defense. Pacifism argues that violence is never acceptable. Because violence is an instrumental act, it undermines and disrespects humanlife as a cherished entity. Upon first evaluation of these arguments, Ipreferred the self-defense paradigm. I believe I am more of a realist. I thoughtthat violence was inevitable. No matter the strategy, violence is going to bethe end result. However, by the end of the semester, I have discoveredsomething. The whole purpose of pacifism is to change the fact that violence isinevitable. It is a movement that teaches humans how to deal with the situationsthat inevitably end in violence. It is a way to defend life from aggressivethreats. The pacifist may never risk killing his opponent, regardless of theconsequences. At all times, they must be respectful and compassionate of life. Ibelieve that I have changed my view because I have a greater understanding ofpacifism. At first, I thought that it was the easy way out. It was the way totake to avoid a situation; no matter the situation, never be violent. Ithought o f issues such as wars or if someone was trying to kill you or yourfamily. How could someone not do anything? It was a weak persons answer tothe argument. Then, out of the blue, it struck me. We are always talking aboutbettering the world, getting rid of violence. Well, we are imitativecreatures. We do what we see. How are the younger generation of people going tobe nonviolent when all they see is violence. If, we dont start demonstratingnonviolent, peaceful acts, what are they going to imitate? We are presentingself-defense as an excuse. It is justifiable but only if you dont intend tokill the other person. This can be a very risky situation. When defendingyourself or someone else, you are allowed violence as long as you didnt meanto kill the aggressor? What happens when you cant decipher the aggressor?Nothing should be taken away from the self-defense philosophy. It isunderstandable and ethical. It would be hard not to defend yourself from anattacker, or to help a loved one. But, i t just seems to me that in todaysworld, we must reevaluate our morals. Self-defense takes the idea that life isintrinsically good and should never be violated. It adds that life should neverbe violated but in certain cases. It seems like a double standard. Pacifism is amovement to take a stand against violence. It is giving violent situations achance of reversal. However, the choice of pacifism is a lifelong commitment. .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 , .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .postImageUrl , .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 , .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:hover , .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:visited , .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:active { border:0!important; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:active , .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0 .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u869a8b013624bfab036f71828696bbd0:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Telemachus And Penelope EssayOne can not be a part time pacifist or a selective supporter of just wars. Thatis, one can not condemn violence, but when violent becomes a personal situation,find an excuse. The same in just wars. All wars must be unjust, not just some. Pacifism is a strong moral stand. It is dedication to preserving human life, nomatter the situation. A pacifist would have to take a stand which would notallow him to violently defended himself or others in any situation. Pacifism isdescribed as the higher calling because it witnesses the grandness andbeauty of being alive. Though the self-defense paradigm is a wonderfularguments, I think it contains a few discrepancies. There should be no excusefor harming another human being. Just because someone else started it, doesntmake it right or O.K. Philosophy

Violence Philosophy Essays - Crime, Dispute Resolution, Ethics

Violence Philosophy Violence in the basis upon which we live. Wherever we go there is some form or act of violence. Most people have lost the concept of right and wrong. The line that once stood between them is now blurred. People find that they do no harm when they commit an act that's wrong. Violence is seen in many forms today that there was ever before. Media has a large part in broadcasting violence. Violence is due to some of these issues such as easy access to weapons, the people who commit crimes have low self-worth and self esteem and religion has become a lesser and lesser part of society. In the United States they have the Second Amendment which is the right to bear arms. This means anyone in the United States can have a gun. In the States it is said that they have enough guns to arm all the adults and half of the children. Then they wonder why their children go out and shoot people at their school. If they were such a gun happy country they would not have one of the highest death rates (by gun wounds) in the world. Since the access to many forms of weapons is gained to easily it is hard to regulate who has weapons and who doesn't. Many people who do own weapons get injured or even die from their very own weapons. The Internet also makes it easily capable to make weapons such as bombs. Although the Internet can not be controlled the access to information on any subject is great. In America they have the easiest access to weapons. Most of the kids who had been found guilty of shooting their peers at school had very low self-esteem and self-worth. Most of these kids could have been helped in one way or another. Teachers, parents, and friends of these people could have seen the warning signs. When children mope around and think nothing of themselves there is something wrong. A lot of tragedies could have been averted . If a lot more influence was put on thinking higher and better of yourself many of these children would be alive or free. Also, many of these children had been taunted or teased. If we could raise awareness on this many children would be free of depression. Most of all depression is the main cause for self-worth and self-esteem. If these kids had not been taunted they would have not sought revenge. Now a days in a catholic school when asked most kids they said they did not go to church at all. If religion was a lot more reinforced would there be so much violence? People find other types of religion much more attractive. Such as cults and gangs. They find they belong more and the benefits are greater. They have false hopes in false gods. Also the lack of a solid family life results in a poor knowledge of individuality; who they are and where they belong. In conclusion the awareness for violence needs to be looked at. How many school shootings, deaths, and other teen violence acts does it take before we realize what has gone wrong. We shouldn't have to sit there and see out friends die because of these savage acts caused by a minor dispute. Everyone needs to listen up and learn. We need to avoid the useless acts of violence. It's easier said than done but once we crack down on violence there will be a lasting difference.

Verbless Sentences

Verbless Sentences Verbless Sentences Verbless Sentences By Ali Hale One of the basic grammatical rules in English is that every sentence should contain a verb. Some of Daily Writing Tips’s readers may have had sentences underlined in red at school if they weren’t a â€Å"proper sentence† – and I’m sure many of you (especially fiction writers) have had Microsoft Word squiggle a green line under a sentence saying â€Å"Fragment (consider revising).† But there are times when you may want to use verbless sentences for effect, and I would argue that in all except very formal types of writing (such as reports at work and student essays), this is entirely appropriate. Verbless sentences in fiction Fiction writers, in particular, should not be afraid of experimenting with verbless sentences – many famous authors use them to great effect. Grammatical rules tend to be relaxed in fiction (especially, though not exclusively, in dialogue) so if your style lends itself towards writing choppy or stark verbless sentences, give it a try. These are the opening sentences to several paragraphs in Chapter Two of Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid’s Tale.) A chair, a table, a lamp. †¦ A window, two white curtains †¦ A bed. †¦ Verbless sentences in blogging Another medium where verbless sentences are often entirely appropriate is in blogging. Most blogs are informal and conversational, written like a friendly letter to the reader. Just as novelists do, bloggers can use verbless sentences for effect – often grabbing the readers’ attention. The online form also means that short, snappy sentences are most likely to engage a reader – and leaving out verbs can accomplish this. Here’s an example from the Men with Pens (the last sentence is verbless): He thought I was joking. â€Å"Dude. They’re seriously not sold in pairs. Who just uses one?† â€Å"Jeez. They obviously employ geniuses in their marketing department.† Or crooks. Verbless sentences in opinion articles Even if you’re writing for a traditional publication – perhaps a newspaper or a magazine – you might be able to get away with using the occasional verbless sentence. Opinion pieces, in particular, tend to be popular due to the writer’s unique style – and this may involve a blog-like chatty tone. Here’s an example from Robert Crampton, who writes the popular Beta Male column in the UK national newspaper The Times. The cash haemorrhage continues. A raffle. Another raffle. A fiver on the final score. A fiver on the first scorer. A fiver on the last scorer. If you take care to make sure each of your sentences is a â€Å"proper† one, then give yourself permission to experiment today. In the next piece of fiction you write, or the next article for a blog or magazine, try using a few verbless sentences. If you’re not sure how to do this, here’s a few examples: She asked, â€Å"Have you done the laundry yet?† Fat chance, I thought. She asked, â€Å"Have you done the laundry yet?† Fat chance. I went through the mental check list again: lunch boxes, water bottles, swimming towels, keys, change†¦ Lunch boxes. Water bottles. Swimming towels. Keys. Change†¦ Danny rides his bike up to the shore, and stares out at the waves. They’re crashing close. The tide’s coming in. Danny rides his bike up to the shore, and stares out at the waves. Crashing. Close. The tide’s coming in. Let us know how you get on! And if you’re a stickler for putting a verb in every sentence, and think this rule shouldn’t be broken, please do add your thoughts in the comments. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:5 Uses of Infinitives"Have" vs "Having" in Certain ExpressionsThrew and Through

Discuss how the media has influenced visions of female sexuality in Essay

Discuss how the media has influenced visions of female sexuality in the 21st century - Essay Example Over the years, women have worked hard to attain high levels of education and gain higher positions within the workforce ladder. However, a gender gap still exists even in these modern days where women’s goals and aspirations have been misrepresented. The media has played one of the greatest roles in this as it has conditioned the masses to believe that women’s success is based on their appearance and attractiveness (Gentile 2). Despite the fact that women work hard to earn these good jobs and vital roles in the society, they still feel the need to appear attractive in order to feel a real sense of success. The media through its advertisements and television programmes has only portrayed attractive women to be successful. As the young children grow assimilating these images in their minds, they can only combine women’s success and their appearances (Goh-Mah 2013). The media has created ideals of a perfect female body when presenting women throughout their broadcastings in the modern society. The media has programmed people to believe that tall, lean, and light skinned women are a symbol of beauty in the society. This has been emphasised by the fashion and entertainment industries, which are mostly viewed by the young generation. Advertisements have upheld and continued to portray this belief as they clearly depict a picture where a woman will enhance her appearance just to attract a man that she will get married to (Strohmeier 2013). These are marketing ploys to ensure that these companies sell numerous beauty products, shoes, clothes and other commodities. Youngsters do not understand this and they grow up already having a perception that model-like figures and accessories are symbols of beauty. This has led to the development of self-esteem issues among many people who don’t possess these features, therefore, taking some people to ex treme measures

Politics 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Politics 2 - Essay Example Under these conditions Barak Obama initiates his cooperation with the American Medical Association. The same attempts have been initiated by another President Bill Clinton, who launched his health care program in 1993-94. The Democratic majorities supported the President in his attempts, but they did not succeed in a holistic implementation of the policy. Population of America did not accept these attempts of Clinton. What is the difference between these two different types of health care policies? Actually, whether these policies are more individually-oriented or whether they are much focused on the interests of the governmental authorities? To give the answer to this question, it is necessary to take into account different pros and cons of health policies in America and the way they have been identified and implemented in the country. Moreover, a special attention should be paid to key players and their roles in these policies' development. Health Care Policy Players Actually, with respect to these two policies, it is easy to identify two main players: the Presidents play the leading roles in the policies' introduction and further implementation. Clinton placed stake on the nation and the public attention to the phenomenon of the universal health care. He wanted to implement his policy with the help of public sector. In other words he wanted to appeal for the official representatives of the public sector, i.e. to employers. The insurance market should have been more attentive to ability of employers to pay for their employees. The Clinton government underlined the necessity of combination both liberal issues and conservative methods. Employer-sponsored insurance failed in America and the government of President Clinton realized that official parties failed in the implementation of insurance policy in America (Oberlander, 2007). The Health Insurance Association of America was developing under intense relations between federal powers and financial sector during period of Clinton's power. Obama's policy has been developed under more favorable conditions. Firstly, he made an emphasis not only on official players of the policy, but also on unofficial players of the health insurance policy. Physicians and common citizens were key players identified by Obama. He wanted medical services to work in favor of the society. He was much more focused on an individualistic approach. He strongly cooperated with the patients and the physicians. His approach was more common and readily accepted by the public. Of course, there were both opponents and proponents with respect to his policy. Financial emphasis was made by the President Obama, when he increased financing by 46.3% in comparison with 2011 (Smith, 2011). Medicaid and Medicare insurance systems were presented by the President as inexpensive and affordable ones. At the same time, the number of physicians was decreased and this factor was not a positive factor in the development of Obama's policy. S imilarly, the number of patients increased greatly. Obama's insurance system was referred to as â€Å"ObamaCare.† This health care policy is well-known for the public and the American society often refers to this policy as to one of the most successful health care policies ever experienced by America. Influences of Key Players Clinton’s government developed its policy in a wrong direction. Health care was considered to be a great contribution to health

Battle of Thermopylae (c. 480BC) Research Paper

Battle of Thermopylae (c. 480BC) - Research Paper Example King Leonidas was held out with mere 300 hoplites and was against thousands of best Great King’s troops. The battle of Thermopylae was during the invasion of Persian between 480-479 BC. The battle was first and between the Greeks and Persians. The force of Greek was very minute and was very much determined to fight and stand against thousands of Persian army. In central Greece, association of Greek-states at the pass of Thermopylae fought with the invading Persians. Greeks were outnumbered but they fought and held back Persians for three days and is known as history’s one of the most famous last stands. King of Sparta Leonidas blocked the road which was the only road to pass by the massive force of Xerxes I of Persia. The 300 Spartans fought till the end but were all killed and they would have known in advance that they would be killed. The courage shown by the Sparta provided a sense of belief and inspiration to the Greeks1. Spartans were never afraid of enemies and th eir numbers. Opposing forces According to Herodotus, Greek city-states consisted of around more than 6,200 men who fought with Persian army and were totally outnumbered. Persian army was about 2,242,000+. Greek army included 300 Spartans, 1000 Phocians, 500 Tegeans, other Arcadians 1000 and others. But comparing with the Persian army it is very minimal and very small army force. Persian army included 500,000 fleet crew, 1,500,000 infantry, 320,000 Greek allied troops, etc. numbers are very large indeed. 300 Spartans who fought for Greek city were an elite group of Spartan hoplites2. Each man of 300 Spartans had a living son. And it is said that each of the 300 Spartans had someone to fight for. 300 elite Spartans were led by the king Leonidas. Strategic and tactical considerations of the Opposing forces The Spartans didn’t have many options. But the king of Sparta Leonidas decided to place scorched earth policy. Policy was placed so that Greeks went out and destroy all buildi ngs, livestock and grain and polluted the main water supply. And all the work was done before the arrival of Persians. When Persians arrived with their huge force at Thermopylae they had to rely on food which is being sent to them. They also found that they could not leave the land and that is not the situation to be in. The Greeks decided that they would make a stand at Thermopylae which is a narrow pass where northwest of Athens met at the sea. From the strategic point, Greeks have used best possible way to stop huge army of patricians. The Greek style of warfare was tactically suited in the pass at Thermopylae3. Leonidas used forces in a narrow pass so that Persians could not attack from flanks. The Greeks deployed in a phalanx. And this basically means Greeks stood in firm lines and used large shields to protect them. They stood firmly in lines and locked their shields together. They locked their shields so tight and close that there isn’t any gap between the shields for enemy to attack. Battle of Thermopylae First day The Phocians built a large ancient wall to stop raids from Thessaly. But it was destroyed and fallen apart. Leonidas went on to rebuild the wall and also send some local Greeks to protect the people who are rebuilding the wall. The Persians saw that rebuilding of the wall but were not concerned by the small force of Greeks. Persians

Concept of Figuration: An Analysis

Concept of Figuration: An Analysis Figurational Sociology The concept of figuration grew out of Norbert Eliass best-known work, The Civilizing Process (Elias, 1939/1994). This work provided an analysis of how the European nation state emerged. It analysed social behaviour in modernity, and particularly social interactions. Split into two parts, the work first focussed on an analysis of manners to provide a description and understanding of the way in which modern norms underlying social interactions had developed. The second part of the book looked at how the nation-state had been built in the twentieth century. What Elias was most interested in, the central thesis of the book, was that it was possible for forms of social discipline manners and social norms to be translated into aspects of individual self-discipline (Olofsson, 2000). For Elias, then, there is a clear connection between a tendency towards state centralisation and the development of modern social manners. This is what he called the civilizing process. This essay, therefore, examines the concept of figuration, its theoretical roots in the study of court society, its modern form and the criticisms that have been levelled against it. As will be seen, the argument over the usefulness of the concept of figuration has been highly contested and strongly polarised (Featherstone, 1987). At the heart of Elias work are a number of concepts figuration is best understood within these. The concepts are interdependence, functional differentiation, self-control and power differences. Social change for Elias mostly results from the effects of functional differentiation. This is an idea shared with writers like Marx who placed the division of labour at the centre of his theory. For Elias, though, this functional differentiation leads to increasing levels of interdependence (Olofsson, 2000). Elias argued that the coercive power of societies emerges out of increasing interdependence. This brings the discussion to the concept of figurations. In order to explain these, Elias uses the example of court society (Olofsson, 2000). He argues that in court society calculation is an important process which individuals must engage in to negotiate with each other as the king communicates with his aristocracy. Because of changes in economic factors, many courts in Europe saw a shift of power from the aristocracy to the king. The power each member of the aristocracy had, therefore, depended on their relationship with the king. In order to survive, aristocrats had to play by certain rational rules that developed. These were based on the complex interdependency between the individuals and the fact that they were playing long-term power games with each other. An important component in playing these long-term power games was being able to control impulses. Because of the number of people in the court, the chains of interdependence were long and complicated. This required planning, attempting to predict the future and saving. Elias called this complex relationship between the king and the court a figuration. A figuration is characterised by asymmetrical power relations amongst a network of individuals. The court situation can, therefore, only be understood in terms of how the individuals relate to one another. Four critical propositions about the figurational approach are extracted from Elias work by Goudsblom (1977). These are firstly that human beings inevitably exist in relationships of interdependence with each other. As a result of this interdependence, complex dynamics emerge which shape many aspects of development and change the ways in which peoples lives develop. The second proposition is that these figurations are constantly changing and being transformed. The third is that these social figurations are not essentially planned but emerge from the interdependencies. Fourth, figurations provide an important cause of the development of human knowledge. In order to better understand the idea of figurations, Elias used various metaphors from games (Olofsson, 2000). Games are useful to analyse because the interactions between the players are not just a result of the absolute strength of each player, but of the relationship between the strengths of the two players. One example is two chess players pitted against each other. If one of them is significantly stronger than the other, then she will be able to control the manner of the victory as well as the actual victory itself. If, however, the levels of skill are much closer then the manner of victory will be much more uncertain and emerge from the interaction between the individuals. What this metaphor shows is that the power differences between two individuals have an important effect on the relationship. Chess only normally involves the relation between two players, but society obviously involves the relations between many more players, all with varying levels of power. Shifts of power differences in society can be seen in the way the upper and lower classes interact. The lower classes have, for example, increased their level of organisation in order to increase their level of power in negotiating with the upper classes (Olofsson, 2000). One of the questions Elias wanted to address was how people continue to interact in generally peaceful ways when there is so much animosity in, for example, power relations (Loyal Quilley, 2004). Models used to answer this question should have a number of characteristics. These are firstly that social processes cannot be analysed in terms of aggregations of components. Secondly the models work to both mould and constrain the behaviour and habitus of individuals. The strength of the idea of figuration for Elias was that it was able to access ideas of what society was about more effectively than other methods in sociology (Krieken, 1998). Specifically it tends not to emphasise the dichotomy often present in sociological literature between the individual and society. Instead it places the emphasis on how human beings are interdependent. Society was not most usefully thought of as a totality or a whole system of individuals. Society for Elias was the way in which people interweaved with each other (Krieken, 1998). The advantage of this view was that it didnt downplay the agency of the individual at the expense of societys control and helped to show how peoples individuality melded together to form networks of interdependence. One important theoretical aspect of figurations that Krieken (1998) points out is that they can continue without the existence of the same individuals but they completely cease to exist if there are no individuals at all. Krieken (1998) argues that Elias concept of figuration has been extremely important for sociology. One of its major strengths is the avoidance of the dichotomy between structure and agency. Although the distinction has been questioned many times in sociology, it is often still treated by sociologists as though it were real. Krieken (1998) points out that some have argued Elias concept of figuration should be placed alongside of the idea of structure. Mouzelis (1993) argues for avoiding abolishing this distinction. He argues for designating relations between actors in terms of figurations, relations between institutions as institutional structure and plain structure when analysing the interaction between institution and individual. Krieken (1998) does not, however, agree with this three-way distinction. Krieken (1998) argues instead that Elias used the concept of figuration to subsume all these categories of analysis. This means that figuration includes the analysis of what is traditi onally called the structure of society. Habitus is also an important concept in Elias theory of figuration. Habitus refers to the idea that each individual has their own set of personal preferences, attitudes, beliefs, expectations and rules. Habitus comes from a persons community and family experience and through their own experience of life as they grow up. For Elias, though, this habitus develops in an essentially shared manner (Krieken, 1998). Individuals grow up in society and their personal characteristics are, to a certain extent, moulded by those around them. Through this collective moulding of individuals, the nature of collective behaviour is formed. The ideas of habitus and figuration lead to a further important concept in Elias theory. That is that the way in which a persons habitus is formed is called psychogenesis. This, then, can only be properly understood when it is considered in relation to social relations or sociogenesis. Theoretically and methodologically, therefore, Elias was arguing against the separ ation of sociology from psychology. Each has important complementary effects on the other, so it is hard to get a clear picture of the full human being if both are not considered together. Elias ideas have vital implications for the way in which sociologists carry out their research. Krieken (1998) identifies two particular characteristics of Elias theory that are a challenge to some types of sociology. First is the focus of figuration on social relations which points to the fact that an individual cannot be analysed in isolation. Individuals can only be understood, even in isolation, argued Elias, in terms of how they relate to other people, as that is how people are formed. Thinking about humans without the relational element has a huge array of possible associated mistakes. For Elias, the analysis of power especially fell foul of the tendency to see power as a thing in itself rather than as arising from social relations (Krieken, 1998). This led, he thought, to all sort of misunderstandings. To be understood effectively, power should be seen in reciprocal terms. Elias argued that power was often analysed as though it only flowed down from above. A figurational analy sis, however, also points to the reciprocal effects flowing up from below. The second major characteristic of Elias theory is that it focuses on processes (Krieken, 1998). Figuration, therefore, cannot be seen as a static phenomenon, but as something that evolves and emerges over time. What had happened in sociology, however, argued Elias, was that there had been a reduction of social phenomena to particular states. Communities, families, individuals, all should be analysed as though in a state of flow, rather than statically. The use of figurations could be used to analyse these flows as long as there was not a reduction to a simple argument of causality. For example, Elias argued that a particular figuration made other, later figurations possible although it did not guarantee they would happen. Analysing society using a series of static conceptual categories, therefore, was precisely what Elias did not agree with (Rojek, 1986). Instead a process theory of sociology encourages analysis in terms of movement. This type of approach has a character quite oppos ed to many in sociology. Figurational sociology can be seen as extremely useful as a reaction to six dominant paradigms in sociology (Arnason, 1987). First Marxs work is limited by its concentration on the economic areas of life, whereas Elias figurational sociology is applicable to all areas. Against Durkheims idea of norms, Elias argued these do not represent fundamental units but rather the question should be asked in terms of power relations. For Elias, these questions should be addressed using a long-term analysis. Examining the functionalist approach, Elias found that trying to explain social structures in terms of the needs of the system was ineffective. The functionalist account is lacking because it finds it difficult to account for the fact that systems are interlinked at all levels. As has already been seen, Elias argued against a structuralist approach. The reductionist approach also had problems for Elias as society, he believed, could not be understood at this level. Finally, Elias took issue w ith individualism, the idea that it is possible to analyse society in terms of individual behaviour (Arnason, 1987). This is replaced by Elias with a focus on power relations and the analysis of figurations. A number of methodological injunctions develop naturally from Elias theory of figurations; these are examined by Loyal and Quilley (2004). The first is that sociologists should not think about either individuals or society as in any way static or fixed. An effective analysis emerges which sidesteps arguments over macro- or micro- level explanations. A further dichotomy which Loyal and Quilley (2004) present as being avoided by Elias work is that of mind-body duality which has crept into sociological work. The idea of figuration draws attention to habits of language in which processes are often reduced to states. The focus of figuration, however, is on using language that has the meaning of motion and flow built into it. The danger for sociologists of automatically adopting the available language of states is a misunderstanding of the processes occurring in society. This view was influenced by the work of Whorf (1956) who argued that language fundamentally affects the perceptions of t he members of the society that speak it. Finally, Elias believed that some measure of distance was required from society in order to be able to analyse figurations effectively. A Critique of Figurational Sociology While much of the commentary on Elias figurational approach discussed so far has been complimentary, his work has a number of critics. Layder (1986) argues that many of Elias claims about the benefits of his approach to sociology are vastly exaggerated. As a result, argues Layder, Elias tends to focus on trying to solve problems that dont actually exist. Layder (1986) starts by considering Elias focus on the static categories used in language as well as the idea that positivistic notions of causation are inadequate. The concept of figuration is used to challenge these ideas by Elias. In addition, underlying Elias concept of figuration is the idea that it transcends long-running arguments in the philosophy of the social sciences such as that between induction and deduction and rationalism and empiricism. Layders (1986) first criticism is that Eliass figurational approach does not transcend previous approaches. One reason for this is that Elias uses only the worst examples from disciplines so that he can easily demolish their explanatory power. Elias critique of social psychology and psychiatry assumes that all its approaches are atomistic. It doesnt, for example, take into account the wide variety of approaches such as those which do, indeed, focus on the effects of society on the individual and are not so atomistic. Symbolic interactionists, for example, highlight the way in which the ordinary, everyday processes of social interaction build to create what is called society. Mead (1934), an important theorist in this approach, emphasised the importance of socialisation and social interaction. For Layder (1986), then, the concept of figuration does not provide any additional explanatory power. Layder also argues that Elias does not demonstrate exactly how the idea of figurations provi des a better explanation of society. In criticising the concept of figurations, Layder (1986) argues that Elias makes a number of philosophical mistakes, some ontological and some epistemological. Layder describes figurations as generalised depictions of the social ties between individuals that Elias argues cannot be analysed outside of individuals. Figurations, though, must have some meaning outside of the interactions of individuals; otherwise it would not be possible to talk about them in an abstract sense. This is not, of course, to suggest that figurations only have meaning outside of actual interactions. For Layder, then Eliass mistake is to argue that a figuration does not have both a manifestation as a social practice as well as existing as an idea about that particular social practice. If the ideas did not exist it would be impossible to talk about the things themselves in an abstract sense. For Layder, then, the very discussion of social practices as figurations proves that they exist outside of the actions th emselves. What Layder allows Elias concept of figuration is that it does provide a useful descriptive tool. Although it doesnt transcend alternative explanations advanced by those working within structuralist and functionalist models, it can provide a useful way of examining interrelations between people. These analyses would, however, in Layders view, be useful in addition to those insights from structuralist or interactionist perspectives, they wouldnt supplant them. The weakness of using the concept of figuration is that it tends to ignore actual people, in deference to their networks of social relations compared to, for example, the analysis provided by interactionism which is very much focussed on social actors themselves. In this sense, it is again difficult to argue that figuration provides an approach transcending interactionism and other schools of thought. The second major criticism that Layder (1986) makes of Eliass concept of figurations relates to their rejection of objectivist structures. As discussed, figurational sociology sees social processes as fundamentally fluid and avoids reductionism Elias claims that this is an insight that helps the figurational analysis transcends other approaches. Against this idea, Layder (1986) argues that many phenomenological and interactionist schools of thought are based on the idea of social relations as a process. But, Elias does not compare his theory to these approaches, preferring to pretend they dont exist. Instead, figuration is compared with the theory of Talcott Parsons as an example of an objectivist theory. Elias takes Parsons idea that society is essentially in an unchanging equilibrium and states that this is the way society is seen from an objectivist viewpoint as a static system. In this analysis one of the mistakes Layder (1986) thinks Elias has made is to create a false dichoto my between static and fluid analysis as though there is no intermediary point. In doing this Elias claims that theories such as Parsons cannot explain processes, which, argues Layder, they can. Indeed, in concentrating on long-term processes, Elias does not allow an effective analysis of short-term processes. The third major criticism which Layder (1986) levels at Elias is that the concept of figuration lacks explanatory power. Rather than helping to explain what lies behind social changes, Layder argues that it merely provides a description of what is happening. When looking for the causes of figurations, Elias presents more figurations. Criticism of the concept of figuration has also come from Rojek (1986). In particular Rojek (1986) examines the way in which Elias talks about the accumulation of scientific knowledge. As briefly noted earlier, Elias argued that the quest for knowledge was not immune to the power of figurations. Indeed he thought it was a mistake that philosophers of the social sciences tended to make that assumed there was one model of the way science should be conducted. One particular claim that has been made for the usefulness of figurational sociology is that it provides a link between micro and macro approaches (Mennell, 1980). Layder (2006) argues, however, that using figurations as the linking between the macro and micro approaches just serves to blur the differences between the two. The character of social relations is quite different depending on its manner for example a face-to-face encounter is different from sending and receiving an email. Within Elias approach each of these would be considered aspects of figurations. Layder (2006), however, argues that each of these creates different levels of reflexivity and therefore requires a different analysis. For Layder (2006), Eliass figurational approach deflects attention away from a number of important factors. Institutions, for example, have important effects on the behaviour of people but this is difficult to analyse by thinking in terms of networks of connections between people. Further, when analysing social organisation in the form of groups, a figurational approach can deflect attention away from the nature of the ties between people, preferring instead to focus on their actual existence and their particular form. A false criticism that Elias makes of sociology generally by way of his figurational approach is that not enough emphasis has been given to the interaction between society and the individual Layder (2006) argues that this interaction is practically the founding idea of sociology. The challenge for sociology is in working out where to split the society from the individual. A problem which Elias work shares with sociology more generally is that a socially constructed model makes it difficult to understand the uniqueness of an individual. A complete lack of barriers between individuals leads to the conclusion that people have no individuality themselves. While it is not helpful to focus too much on the individual, it is also problematic for a complete understanding to give too little focus to the individual. Layder (2006) argues that, like extreme social constructionists, Elias theory of figuration is in danger of completely eradicating the individual as a legitimate object of study. Figurational Sociology and Sport In order to further assess the usefulness of the concept of figuration and see the benefits and criticisms in action, it is instructive to examine an example of its practical application. The principles of figurational sociology have been applied in a number of different areas, but one particularly popular area is that of sport. Figurational sociology has been used to try and understand football hooliganism, the growth of professional sport, the globalisation of sport and finally initial process of sportization (Murphy, Sheard Waddington, 2002). To take one example in this line of analysis, Dunning and Sheard (1979) examine the development of rugby. They explain the increased professionalism of the sport in terms of a societal move towards functional democratisation. This process leads to greater levels of competition, so that rugby players can no longer play just for fun. Instead, it is necessary to be highly committed to the sport in order to be recognised as successful. Because of the increased interconnectedness of individuals, it is no longer possible for athletes to play for themselves; instead they have to play for their countries (Dunning Sheard, 1979). This analysis helps to explain professionalism in rugby and the advantages of a figurational approach can be seen. Societal changes are examined here in terms of figurations and this provides a useful analysis and explanation of changes. In contrast, Murphy et al. (2002) point out that one of the criticisms of the figurational approach to sport is that it has ignored gender issues. Hargreaves (1992) argues that the figurational obsession with detachment has meant the analysis of sport has readily accepted a notion of sport as dominated by men. Even while Murphy et al. (2002) argue that this absence of the analysis of gender in figurational sociology is not a result of its theoretical limitations, from the criticisms already described the opposite can be argued. Particularly, as Layder (2006) points out, the figurational approach is weak on the analysis of the individual. Conclusion Elias made many claims for his concept of figuration. He claimed that it transcended previous approaches to sociology, rose above false dichotomies and helped sociologists focus on human beings as fundamentally involved in a network of interrelated relationships. Methodological injunctions also flowed naturally from Elias theory: e.g. focussing on processes rather than categories or states and establishing a distance between the researcher and the subject. Considering the criticism levelled at Elias work by Layder, however, it is difficult to see that these claims for a transcendent sociology are justified. Elias frequently misrepresented or ignored the work of sociologists he was apparently transcending as well as making serious epistemological and ontological errors. While both the advantages and disadvantages of the figurational approach can be seen in the area of sport sociology, it is hard to argue that Elias work stands up to Layders criticism. Perhaps the strongest criticism i s that figuration is merely a descriptive rather than an explanatory approach. For that reason, the usefulness of Elias concept of figuration is limited. References Arnason, J. (1987). Figurational Sociology as a Counter-Paradigm. Theory, Culture Society, 4(2), 429-456. Elias, N. (1939/1994). The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization. Blackwell. Dunning, E., Sheard, K. (1979). Barbarians, gentlemen and players: a sociological study of the development of rugby football. London: Martin Robertson. Featherstone, M. (1987). Norbert Elias and Figurational Sociology: Some Prefatory Remarks. Theory, Culture Society, 4(2), 197. Goudsblom, J. (1977). Sociology in the Balance: A Critical Essay. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Hargreaves, J. (1992). Sex, gender and the body in sport and leisure: Has there been a civilizing process? In E. Dunning C. Rojek (Eds.). Sport and leisure in the civilizing process: Critique and counter-critique. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Krieken, R. (1998) Norbert Elias. London: Routledge. Layder, D. (1986). Social Reality as Figuration: A Critique of Eliass Conception of Sociological Analysis. Sociology, 20(3), 367. Layder, D. (2006). Understanding Social Theory. London: Sage Publications. Loyal, S., Quilley, S. (2004). Towards a central theory: the scope and relevance of the sociology of Norbert Elias. In: S. Loyal S. Quilley (Eds.). The Sociology of Norbert Elias. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mead, G. (1934). Mind, Self and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mennell, S. (1980). Sociological Theory, Uses and Unities. London: Nelson. Mouzelis, N. (1993). On Figurational Sociology. Theory, Culture Society, 10(2), 239. Murphy, P., Sheard, K., Waddington, I. (2002) Figurational sociology and its application to sport. In: J. Coakley E. Dunning (Eds.). Handbook of sports studies. Sage Publications. Olofsson, G. (2000) Norbert Elias. In: H. Andersen, L. Kaspersen (Eds.). Classical and Modern Social Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Rojek, C. (1986). Problems of Involvement and Detachment in the Writings of Norbert Elias. The British Journal of Sociology, 37(4), 584-596. Whorf, B. (1956). Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. J. B. Carroll (Ed.). Massachusetts: MIT Press

Consciousness and the Placebo Effect Essay -- Biology Essays Research

Consciousness and the Placebo Effect In controlled studies, experimenters use placebos as medium to compare the efficacy of a drug. Double-blind controlled studies provide information on whether a drug is effective or if it is not better than placebo. The results of double-blind studies usually depict the latter. Rarely are drugs found to be significantly more effective than placebo because of the placebo effect. The phenomenal effectiveness of the placebo in controlled experiments is mind boggling. Experimenters can not fully understand the etiology of the placebo effect in relation to the nervous system but they have proposed plausible suggestions to the underlying mechanisms involved. An intriguing question raised is the placebo's ability to cure numerous symptoms. I hypothesize that the level of consciousness or alertness of the I-function, within the individual, may be the deciding factor in whether the placebo effect occurs. The objective of a placebo is to compare and assure that a new drug or operational procedure is effective. In experiments, the placebo is an inactive substance or procedure used as a control in an experiment (1). The placebo looks, tastes or feels just like the actual treatment (2). A false procedure for example, may consist of advising a person that he/she will be operated on and then making an incision into a person without operating. Subjects are advised of their probability of receiving actual treatment in order to maintain the expectation level of the participants. The efficacy of making an incision maintains the expectation level of the subject because the presence of a scar raises their belief that they were placed in the actual treatment group. Whether the placebo is a 'sugar pill' or an... ...) Alternative and Complementary Therapies: The Placebo Effect http://www.cancer.org/alt_therapies/articles/placebo.html 3) Alpha Omega Pain Medicine Associates: Placebo Power , date: 4/18/99 http://www.painmasters.com/ 4) Healthline Magazine: Placebo Effects on Pain , date: 4/18/99 http://www.health-line.com/articles/hl950404.htm 5) The Reward System, by Aryeh Routtenberg (located on N & B Reserve) 6) Thalamocortical Aspects of Consciousness From the Perspective of a Neurobiologist , date: 5/5/99 http://www.phil.vt.edu/assc/newman/grace.html 7) Why It Must Be Consciousness- For Real ! http://www.phil.vt.edu/assc/newman/baars.html 8)Other Links 9)Mind/Brain/Behavior The Pleasing Placebo http://www.med.harvard.edu/publications/Focus/Jan20_1995/Mind.html 10)What's the Placebo Effect? http://www.oakland.edu/~djcarlst/abx_plac.htm

The launch of the BIC

The launch of the BIC women underwear is the best example that it was not. The brand products are known as disposables and have a similar way to distribute and use the same outlets. The new line on disposable underwear had no link with the other products BIC was operating with. There was no link connecting underwear and pens or lighters. So in order to introduce such a different product a huge campaign should had been introduce. This campaign showing more than one product the underwear to show the new line or products the company is going to introduce.The marketing for the underwear was very poor instead and the underwear buyers did not want them at all. BIC was not flexible enough in order to enter a new unrelated product category. The difficulty existing to connect two different categories of products with the same name was not argued by BIC. The powerful existing brand perception for one style of products it is almost impossible to change. The brands name can have a lot of power w here they have credentials.If you take the name of the brand out of these credentials it loses its power. BIC tried to find a new product to sell so desperate that they did not think how to introduce it in the market. The BIC underwear also requires a new distribution channel and ifferent technology in its production. The main BIC products use different materials such as plastic and metal. The BIC underwear needed a new production material. All these made the BIC underwear fail and disappear really fast.I would have done a different campaign to launch this product. First by using the many sources of communication that BIC has. Place in every sell cage of BIC pens and lighters a pre-launch awareness. Market the people that already know the brand and create a perception of a change in the brand. With this source of marketing you could ntroduce them to social media of BIC offering incentives. With this you will have feedback before launching. The underwear must have quality and BIC mai n products do not fulfill this perception.Let the customer tell you what they will like in the underwear's. Place yourself in the street and introduce the product, get feedback and advertise it at the same time. In order to launch the new product place the product and focus in a particular sector. Quality, price and easy to buy must be the main features of this product to get the customer satisfaction. Find the way to distribute the product and promote it. This product cannot be sold in the same distribution channel of the other products BIC has.The women underwear is a product that you want to place in the right stores, the stores where women buy their underwear. In the stores big promotions and easy perception must be place. For the underwear with the other brands. With this BIC underwear will focus in the ages between 14-26 year old women. This age group is more open to changes and convenience. Also a change in the brand logo for this product must be done. With this brand awarene ss exists but also a differentiation from the main products of BIC.

Business Life Cycle Essays

Business Life Cycle Essays Business Life Cycle Essay Business Life Cycle Essay The Business life cycle can be split into 4 main stages. These are- Establishment, Growth, Maturity and Post-maturity. Post-maturity can be split into a further 3 â€Å"options†. These are- Establishment is when the business is created. In the phase, it is vital to create a strong foundation and secure income. You must make sure the expenses do not outweigh your income. You find it difficult to getting finance, due to low profit and sale levels from poor customer awareness. This can be very problematic, as there are often high start-up costs for new businesses. During establishment, you must decide what structure to follow (sole trader, partnership ) Employ workers, find a facility to mass produce your product, factoring in production costs vs. Final profit, Work out the market value for your product, too high and you will lose out to your competitors, too low and you will not be able to cover the costs of production and generally functioning as a business. All this and you must work out how to let the public know about your product (advertising) and setting up the appropriate bank accounts, dealing with employee and business taxes and arranging insurance for everything. Growth is when long term plans for the business must be made. Sales increase, you have a solid customer base and you have larger production levels. These pose a problem, as more finance, employees and equipment may be required to meet up with supply-demand. During this time, the decision may be made to change business structure to allow for smoother running, or easier ways of getting money. This increase of just about everything creates a lot of management stress, and occasionally outside parties must be hired to deal with it. Maturity is when the company is established on the market and needs to innovate continuously to stay competitive, and your long-term plans are met. There is more competition, profits and sales level off and if you have saturated your market, the business may be required to alter or create a new, better product to keep up with the market. How the business should be operated must be re-thought to ensure your business survives. This could sometimes mean dramatic changes, such as a complete re-structure of the business, or something small such as the business becoming a more formally organised structure. Post maturity is where a business goes after maturity. There are 3 different ways to go. These are Renewal, Steady state and Decline. The decline ultimately ends in the business closing down. It becomes harder o compete with other products, yours may have become obsolete, and your employees may leave to look for better opportunities. A business in a steady state is in exactly that- a steady state. It is neither expanding nor declining. This is not necessarily a bad thing, but eventually it will lead to either a decline or renewal, as competitors will try to buy you out or take your customer base. To get into renewal, you must tap into new markets and meet new requirements in your customers’ life. This takes enormo us effort from both the owners and employees. This sometimes requires leaving behind old products, creating new ones, or re-designing your brand, coming at it at a different angle. You know you have succeeded when profit levels reach all time highs, and although cash flow may decline as costs for research into new markets begins, in the long term you end up with more capital. Westfarmers. (bussiness example) Westfarmers was founded by farmers and focused on the distribution of services and farming equipment to the rural community of Western Australia. It is currently in a state of post-maturity renewal. In the 1940s the company did things like being wheat and general merchants; country distribution for Commonwealth Oil Refineries Ltd; wool, live stock, skin and produce auctioneers; grain fruit exporters; insurance underwriters; acquiring agents for the wheat pool of W. A. Westfarmers had set-ups in different locations in the Perth central business district. In the 1940s there headquarters was at 563-571 Wellington Street. They also had headquarters at Newman Street in Fremantle. In 1985 Westfarmers restructured itself from a co-operative to a public company and was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange. Wesfarmers is now in a constant state of renewal, from buying out stores such as K-mart, Coles, Officeworks, Bunning’s warehouse, Target and Houseworks. If it keeps going on buying out more and more companies they will become extremely profitable, and very hard to contend with. Bibliography- http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Wesfarmers wesfarmers. com. au/people_home. aspx fairfaxcounty. gov/dpsm/osb/start_up. htm fairfaxcounty. gov/dpsm/osb/growth. htm Pg 28-31, 35-36, 38-39, â€Å"business studies in action† S. Chapman, N. Devenish, M. Dhall.

Abstractions in PowerWriting essays

Abstractions in PowerWriting essays There are many abstractions in the Declaration of Independence. These abstractions such as: rights, freedom, liberty and happiness have become the foundations of American society and have helped to shape the "American Identity." Power, another abstraction that reoccurs in all the major parts of the Declaration of Independence plays an equally important role in shaping "America identity." One forgets the abstraction of power, because it appears in relation to other institutions: the legislature, the King, the earth, and the military. The abstraction of power sets the tone of the Declaration, and shapes the colonists conception of government and society. Power in the Declaration of Independence flows from distinct bodies within society such as the King, the legislature, the military, The Oxford English Dictionary defines power as, "the ability to do or effect something or anything, or to act upon a person or thing" (OED 2536). Throughout the ages according to the dictionary the word power has connoted similar meanings. In 1470 the word power meant to have strength and the ability to do something, "With all thair strang *poweir" (OED 2536) Nearly three hundred years later in 1785 the word power carried the same meaning of control, strength, and force, "power to produce an effect, supposes power not to produce it; otherwise it is not power but necessity" (OED 2536). This definition explains how the power government or social institutions rests in their ability to command people, rocks, colonies to do something they otherwise would not do. To make the people pay taxes. To make the rocks form into a fence. To make the colonists honor the King. The colonialists adopt this interpretation of power. They see power as a cruel force that has wedded them to a King who has "a history of ...

Operations Management, ABC & Co Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Operations Management, ABC & Co - Case Study Example They were expecting a vehicle of standard quality. When the first manufactured vehicle came into the market, customers were informed through a massive advertisement through television, newspapers and magazines and it made a great business. After launch of the 1st manufactured car, the company decided to introduce new models of the car every year by making amendments in form of colors, gears, wheels, design of wheels, head lights, improved quality of the silencer, etc. the company did not feel any need to make a heavy advertisement of these changes but an advertisement in few magazines. The reason behind this policy was the trust of the customers who they have gained through their performance. Moreover there was not so much important changed model of the car that it should be advertised at large scale. The company is committed to the quality products and quality services. The company emphasizes over the safety of environment and surroundings. The plants of the company have been established according to the modern technology to recycle the waste and prohibition of smoke and chemicals to the environment. The vehicles sold by the company contains slogan of environment safety as well the manuals of the vehicles contain directions for provision from environmental pollution. The customers of the company are spread all over the world as the company started its services by importing the cars from different regions of the world for different regions. Mainly the customers of the company fall into two categories: 1- The customers buying the imported vehicles. 2- The customers purchasing the company's own vehicles The customers of 1st category are the older clients who purchasing the vehicles of any kind from the company. They never switch towards the other companies in seek of different vehicles as they order their required vehicles through theior orders. They can be categorized as loyal customers. The company focuses to sustain them as loyal customers are much important for any company. They bring more customers for the company as well they describe their demands and suggest beneficial recommendations for the company. The second category customers are temporary purchasing vehicles. They are attracted by new models and low prices. But they can switch to other companies as ell for bargain. The company is trying to gain their trust at such level that they also fall in the category of loyal customers. CHALLENGES: The company has been facing many challenges in the past. The management has been dealing with these challenges very well. The current challenges faced by the company are: to provide services in 5 more countries to manufacture two wheel vehicles for developing regions of the world to provide their

Surviving Divorce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Surviving Divorce - Essay Example For sensitive beings, it really is a trauma, or may be more than that. To come out of the cocoon shell after the divorce, and start leading a normal life, is actually a task that demands a lot of determination, energy, and strength of character and mind. Surviving a divorce alone is not that difficult as it is when there are children. This paper tends to discuss how surviving a divorce is difficult, and how one should be able to survive it, with and without children. â€Å"More than 40 percent of marriages in America end in divorce† (The Survivor’s Club, para.2). There are a lot of people out there who have decided to get separated from their spouses, have signed the papers, have convinced their children that they would be going to live a single-parent lifestyle, have moved, and have finally settled. So, this is not something out of the world. People get married, and if they find out that they are not going to be compatible to spend their whole lives with each other, they get divorced. However, what happens next is a matter of sensibility and good planning. An ill-planned life after a divorce results in a greater havoc and a heavier mess than before. On the other hand, a well-planned life after a divorce brings much more happiness and satisfaction than the time before divorce. All of us have known someone who has survived a divorce with strength and potency; and, all of us have also known a person who has chosen to be a victim of t raumatic stress for good, or at least for many years after the divorce, not letting the dark shadows of sadness and gloom end. So, to survive a divorce or be a life time victim of stress and depression is all a matter of using sense and sensibility. Of course, there is pain attached to the whole thing, but how we lessen the pain, or bear it, is the magic trick. According to Wendy Walsh (para.2): A pain-free divorce is limited to those who are